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International Journal of Fieldwork
Studies, 2003 1 (1)
Environmental Impacts of Tourism in Kullu-Manali
complex in North Western Himalaya, India. Part 1: The Adverse Impacts
Jagdish C. Kuniyal¹, Arun P. Jain²
and Ardhendu S. Shannigrahi²
¹1G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan
Environment and Development,
Himachal Unit, Mohal- Kullu: 175 126 (HP), India
²Jain and Shannigrahi were earlier associated with the Institute
 Abstract
The study aims to assess the environmental situation
arising at two important locations in North Western Himalaya- Kullu
and Manali due to increasing pressure of tourism. It takes up the
problems of over construction of hotels, deforestation, air pollution,
solid waste, water pollution and also suggests some mitigating measures
to lessen the load of different forms of pollutions. Hotel construction
registered its highest growth in this region (about 38%) during
80s due to terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir. One-quarter of the hoteliers
and tourists consider deforestation as one of the topmost problems
arising due to unregulated tourism. Air pollution studies over a
four-year (1996-99) period shows that suspended particulate matter
(SPM) has gone up to 112 mg/m³ at Manali during summers. An
in-depth study of the total waste generated shows that the proportion
of decomposing waste (nearly 63% in Kullu and 72% in Manali) is
higher than that of non-biodegradables. Indiscriminate throwing
of municipal solid waste into rivers is common practice in these
tourist spots, as a result river water is continuously being polluted.
To mitigate all these problems, a complete ban on further construction
of large hotels needs to be enforced along with regulation of tourists
and strict enforcement of emission standards for vehicles. Segregation
of wastes at its source and production of biocompost from the biodegradable
waste could be an important way of dealing with the solid wastes.
Key Words
tourism, adverse impacts, over construction, deforestation,
air pollution, solid wastes, water pollution, Himalaya
 Résumé
L'étude a pour but d'estimer l'état de l'environnement
dans deux régions du Nord Ouest de l'Inde: a Kulle et a Manali,
résultant de la pression croissante du tourisme. Elle considère
les problèmes causés par la construction trop intensive
d'hôtels, la déforestation, la pollution atmosphérique,
les déchets solides, la pollution de l'eau, et elle suggère
également quelques mesures qui peuvent diminuer la quantité
de différentes formes de pollution. La construction d'hôtels
à montré un niveau de croissance maximal (environ
38%) dans les années 80, en raison du terrorisme dans le
Jammu et le Kashmir (Cachemire). Un quart des hôteliers et
des touristes considèrent que la déforestation est
l'un der problèmes les plus importants, due à un tourisme
sans réglementation. Les études de la pollution de
l'air produit une période de 4 ans (1996-99) montrent que
la matière en particules suspendues (SPM) a atteint jusqu'à
112 mg/m3 à Manali Durant l'été. Une étude
approfondie du total de déchets en décomposition (près
de 63% à Kullu et 72% à Manali) est plus élevée
que celles des déchets non-biodegradable. Le déversement
in discriminé des déchets solides municipaux dans
les rivières est une pratique courante dans les lieux touristiques,
le résultat étant que l'eaux des rivières est
sans cesse pollué. Pour limiter tous ces problèmes,
il faut mettre en place un interdit total de construction de grands
hôtels ainsi que le contrôle des touristes et des règles
strictes de limitation des gaz d'échappement des véhicules.
La ségrégation des déchets a leur origine et
la production de bio compost à partir des déchets
biodégradables pourrait être une façon importante
de disposer des déchets solides.
Mots clefs
tourisme, effets néfastes, constructions
excessive, déforestation, pollution atmosphérique,
déchets solides, pollution de l'eau, Himalaya
Rezumat
Acest studiu are ca obiectiv evaluarea situatiei ecologice aparute
in doua locuri importante din Nord Vestul Himalya - Kullu si Manali
ca urmare a presiunii crescande a turismului. Sunt prezentate problemele
create odata cu construirea intensiva de hoteluri, defrisarea, poluarea
aerului, reziduurile, poluarea apei si sunt sugerate cateva solutii
in vederea diminuarii diferitelor forme de poluare. Constructia
de hoteluri a atins apogeul din regiune (38%) in anii '80 ca urmare
a terorismului din Jammu si Kashmir. Un sfert din personalul hotelier
si turisti considera defrisarea ca fiind una dintre cele mai mari
probleme aparute ca urmare a turismului nesupravegheat. Poluarea
atosferica este studiata pe o perioada de 4 ani (1996 - 1999) si
se arata ca particulele in suspensie creste la 112 mg/m3 la Manali
in timpul verii. Un studiu amanuntit al reziduurilor solide arata
ca in general proportia de reziduuri biodegradabile (aproape 63%
in Kullu si 72% in Manali) este mai mare decat cea a reziduurilor
nebiodegradabile. Descarcarea reziduurilor solide municipale fara
exceptie sunt deversate in rauri si constituie o practica obisnuita,
avand ca rezultat poluarea continua a apelor acestora. Pentru solutionarea
tuturor acestor probleme este necesara introducerea unei interdictii
complete impotriva construirii mai multor hoteluri, reglementarea
numarului de turisti si a standardelor autovehicolelor. Segregarea
la sursa a reziduurilor si producerea de biocompost din reziduuri
biodegradabile ar putea fi un mod important de a face fata problemei
reziduurilor solide.
Cuvinte cheie
turism, impacte adverse, supraconstruire, defrisare, poluare
atmosferica, reziduuri solide, poluarea apei, Himalaya
Introduction
The environmental and geographic suitability of Himachal state
for tourism has undoubtedly provided endless opportunities to the
development of this sector in the region. But sustainable tourism
primarily depends on a balance between the number of tourists and
the available infrastructures otherwise negative impacts on our
environment are bound to follow. People are the ultimate loser or
gainer of any activity performed in any part of the earth. Therefore
human beings must exercise some rationality while exploiting the
resources of the planet. There is a need to create adequate infrastructure
and awareness to overcome the different type of pollution problems
and long term impacts that have to be borne by human beings both
hosts and guests.
The advent of tourism activity and its unregulated growth particularly
in the present study area has resulted in a dramatic increase in
the number of hotels, and unmindful of the number of tourists. There
was an increased need for hotel accommodation during 1990s when
the majority of the tourists from Jammu and Kashmir state turned
towards Kullu-Manali. This inflow exerted such great pressure that
over-construction of hotels took place in a big way. The surrounding
forests were also exploited largely for timber but also for fuel.
Along with continuing deforestation, air pollution has been observed.
The forest cover has decreased but the number of tourist vehicles
particularly during the peak summer season has increased. This resulted
in high emissions of pollutants in the ambient air causing health
risks to natives and tourists alike. Total SPM and other gases were
the major forms of pollutants. The aesthetic beauty of the tourist
spot diminished due to high solid waste generation compounded by
inadequate infrastructure facilities to tackle it. Indiscriminate
throwing of solid waste into river has caused water contamination.
Continuous drying up of springs in the hill spots has also posed
a serious threat to water supply of the region. As a result, tourists,
hosts and many other living organisms in the region have begun to
feel the impact of water crisis. Rivers being the major source of
drinking water and the only option for future water this cannot
be allowed to surpass the level of pollutions.
Keeping in view these alarming problems, this study focuses on
the following objectives:
- to assess major adverse impacts due to tourism (such as, over
construction of hotels, deforestation, air pollution, solid waste,
water pollution) in Kullu-Manali complex (KMC), and
- to find some mitigating measures to lessen the load of different
forms of pollution.
The
Study Area, Tourism Resources and Tourists
The area under study comprises Kullu Municipal Council (M.Cl.)
and Manali Naggar Panchayat (N.P.) in the Beas valley, and Manikaran
in the Parbati valley. Whenever reference in the text is made to
Kullu valley both the areas of, Beas valley as well as Parbati valley
are included in it. The Kullu-Manali tourist region comprises the
Beas basin in Kullu valley of Himachal Pradesh in the North Western
Himalaya. The Beas valley begins from Larji (957 m in lower Beas
basin) and stretches up to Rohtang crest (4038 m under upper Beas
basin).
Kullu and Manali are the major tourist spots in this valley. Kullu
town (1219 m: sub-temperate climate), located between 31°38'
N latitude and 77°60' E longitude has a geographical area of
7 km² and a population of 18,306 in 2001 (Census of India,
2001). Manali tourist resort (2050 m: temperate climate), located
between 32°24'30" N latitude and 77°10'6" E longitude
has a geographical area of about 3.5 km² and a population of
6,265 in 2001 (Census of India, 2001).
The Parbati valley is narrow and there are very few places with
a width of more than 1 km. The valley stretches from Hathithan village
(1000 m), near Bhuntar, in the south east direction to its highest
point about 6260 m high, beyond the Pin Parbati Pass. Manikaran
(1737 m), situated in a very narrow part of Parbati valley, is located
between 3205' N latitude and 770 2' E longitude and is a small but
significant religious place (Fig. 1). In 1991 a total of 3,483 persons
lived in and around Manikaran revenue village (Census of India,
1991).
Figure 1: Geographical location of study sites
The tourism resources that the tourists see and visit in Kullu
valley are mainly its unique, broad, beautiful landscape features,
blooming orchards and ancient temples. In addition they come to
the area to see the beautiful scenic valley and traditional townships.
The important tourist resources for Kullu, Manali and others are
primarily a combination of both religious and scenic. That's why
this valley is known as `Valley of Gods'. There are many temples
and sites within 8 km of Kullu town. The Great Himalayan National
Park, Khokhan, Kais, Sainj and Tirthan are wildlife sanctuaries
in the region.
Manali has more strategic location among all the major tourist
spots of the Beas valley. Beautiful alpine pastures, snow capped
mountain peaks, orchards and coniferous Deodar trees attract many
nature lovers. Other tourist attractions include temples, hot water
springs and baths and beautiful picnic spots of snow capped peaks
with glaciers and moraines, broad valleys with blossoming orchards
and meandering rivers. Mountaineering, adventure sports and winter
snow sports are also undertaken in the area.
These tourist spots occupy strategic positions in the geologically
fragile and ecologically delicate region of the north western Himalaya
where such studies as the present one have yet not been taken up.
These areas should be the high priority areas from environmental
conservation point of view of the Himalaya and similar mountain
tourist spots of the world where tourism pressure exceeds the available
infrastructure so as to establish a harmonious relationship between
people and nature.
Review
of Literature
The arrival of tourists in the Kullu valley is directly related
to the facility of road transport. Pre-motor days were devoid of
tourism in the valley. British travellers and their clan were served
by begar (bonded labourers). Begar was supplied to the travellers
at rates payable by the then written scale. For example, the rates
around 1870 from Sultanpur to Raison (14 km) was four annas, and
from Raison to Manali (26 km) it was six annas (Harcourt, 1871).
The opening of the Mandi-Larji gorge in 1930 made the Kullu valley
accessible to the outside world and this laid the foundation of
tourism industry (Sharma, 1989). In 1964-65 the tourists coming
into the valley were around 10,000 this rose to nearly 70,000 in
the 80s (Singh, 1989). However, up to this period tourism was in
juvenile stage of its growth and no adverse impacts arising out
of accommodating these numbers in Kullu-Manali complex were noticeable.
The interrelationships among host-tourist-nature at that time could
be said to be holistic and ecofriendly. However, in the late 80s
and 90s traffic of tourists rose exponentially. The tourists were
as high as ~11 lakh (1 lakh=100 thousand) in Manali and ~3 lakh
in Kullu (Anonymous, 1994a; Ram and Kuniyal, 1994). This rapid growth
in the number of tourists was a golden period for hoteliers and
travel agents but for environmentalists it was a nightmare. Construction
of hotels was in full swing and environmentalists began to perceive
the danger signs not only to environment but also to the tourist
industry.
Besides enhancing the scenic beauty, forests have a vital role
in regulating temperature and rainfall, and minimising adverse impacts
arising due to over interference on the part of human beings. Forests
also determine economic activities, development and livelihood of
the people. They control the climate and regulate the hydrological
cycle, protect soil erosion and stabilise carbon, nitrogen and oxygen
contents in the atmosphere. Initially, the valley was rich in forest
cover, fauna and water resources (Singh, 1989). Forests were full
of Deodar (Cedrus deodara), Tosh (Pinus webbiana), Rae (Abies smithiana),
and Kail (Pinus wallichiana). These species were covering the high
altitude areas of Rohtang Pass with dense coverage (Harcourt, 1871).
Nowadays, this tree line is receding and exists only between Marhi-Kothi
and Manali. Even in Marhi-Kothi, there were dense deodar trees during
recent decades but now nothing remains except for a few dead tree
stumps as these trees were cut indiscriminately for timber. Many
efforts by the local forest department to revive these species in
the region have so far failed. Similarly, in the Solang valley,
the winter sports site, the villages were known for deodar trees,
one was said to have the largest in India (Harcourt, 1871). The
situation today is very different. The trees here are sparse due
to high biotic pressures.
Air pollution has also started to exceed permissible levels in
many parts of globe particularly when tourist inflow is very high
and other human activities increase. Air pollution in developed
countries such as USA shows high pollution levels in some of its
cities. Smog and ozone showed levels above a Federal threshold of
120 parts per billion (ppb) for an hour in New York for 14 days
and Washington DC for 7 days in summer (Down to Earth or DTE, 1999a,
p. 16). Malaysia, among the developing countries, kept its air quality
level as an official secret due to the fear of losing tourists as
the tourist numbers there had dropped in 1997 following the occurrence
of smog that covered most of the country (DTE, 1999b, p. 18). According
to the Nepal Environmental and Scientific Services, air pollution
exceeded four times the acceptable standard (i.e., 170 mg/m3) in
Nepal at Kathmandu where it was 1,000-5,000 mg/m3 in 24 hourly sampling
in 1999 (DTE, 1999c, p. 16). Kathmandu's air quality is comparable
to Mexico City, which has been recognised as the worst in the world
(DTE, 1999d, p. 19).
As far as air quality in Indian cities is concerned, it has never
been as bad as it is at the present. More and more people are dying
due to the increasing pollutants in the air. It is estimated that
nearly 52,000 people in 36 Indian cities died due to high levels
of SPM in 1995, a rise of 28% from the earlier figure of 40,000
in 1991-92 (DTE, 1997, p. 30). The permissible levels of air quality
are necessary with an adequate margin of safety, to protect the
public health, vegetation and property. Based on National Ambient
Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) set by Central Pollution and Control
Board, New Delhi, the permissible limit to SPM on national level
is 100 mg/m³ for 24 hourly/8 hourly monitoring for sensitive
areas like Kullu and Manali, 200 mg/m³ for residential, rural
and other areas and 500 mg/m³ for industrial areas which should
meet 98% of the time in a year (Central Pollution Control Board
or CPCB, 1994). However, 2% of the time, it may exceed but not on
two consecutive days. For gaseous pollutants- sulphur dioxide (SO2)
and oxides of nitrogen (NO2) permissible limit stands 30 mg/m³
to each gas for sensitive areas, 80 mg/m³ for residential,
rural and other areas and 120 mg/m³ for industrial areas in
a year (CPCB, 1994).
In 1997, Lucknow -the capital of Uttar Pradesh- recorded the maximum
level of SPM at 2,339 mg/m³ which was as high as 2,340 mg/m³
recorded in Delhi in 1992. In Kanpur, SPM level on an average was
400 mg/m³ with a maximum of 1,000 mg/m³. In the southern
parts of the country such as Pondicherry, SPM and SO2 were about
three times the permissible limits, while oxides of nitrogen were
more than two times the permissible level (DTE, 1999e, p. 34-37).
Air pollution has also started to exceed permissible levels particularly
in summers when tourist inflow is very high. Some of the Himalayan
towns, with high pressure of tourist activities, are not lagging
behind the country's metropolitan cities in terms of air pollution.
They have either reached the threshold limits or have begun to cross
it in towns such as Dehradun (323.0 mg/m³), Shimla (142.4),
Guwahati (93.3) and Shillong (42.2) (DTE, 1997, p. 30). Recently
in 1997, Dehradun showed annual average SPM level to be more than
twice the permissible level (DTE, 1999e, p. 34-37). The ban on stone
crushers by Jammu and Kashmir government have ultimately shut down
SPM producing stone-crushing units and saved the life of 3,000 residents.
A study conducted by Jammu and Kashmir State Pollution Control Board
in Athawajan area showed SPM to be 1,000 mg/m³ as against 600
mg/m³ set by the state regulatory bodies as the permissible
level. In the adjacent residential area, the SPM is above 400 mg/m³
twice the permissible level of the 200 mg/m³ (DTE, 2000a, p.
14). Shimla- the queen of the hills- in Himachal Pradesh recorded
the maximum SPM level of 952 mg/m³ in 1992; this dropped to
217 mg/m³ in 1997 by the strict enforcement of preventive measures
and it is marginally higher than the safe limit of 200 mg/m³
(DTE, 1999e, p. 41). So the hard fact is to that air pollution is
disturbingly high even in certain parts of the Himalaya.
Mountainous tourist spots with their snow-capped peaks appear very
beautiful and grand from a distance. But when they are observed
at close quarters, in the absence of inefficient mechanisms of collection,
transportation and disposal of wastes, they have become the dumping
grounds of garbage. For the simple reason that the waste generation
is higher than the infrastructure available, with the managing authorities,
to handle it.
Per capita per day waste generation at global level shows wide
variation from country to country. For Canada it was 2.7 kg, for
Switzerland it is 2.6 kg, for USA 1.96, France 0.9-2.5 kg and in
U.K. 0.9 kg (Ravindra and Tripathi, 1997; US Environmental Protection
Agency or USEPA, 1998). Waste generation generally is proportional
to the country's living as well as economic standards. Nevertheless,
role of tourists in generation of waste in tourist areas, particularly
in developing countries, is quite high although similar studies
are until today meagre. For instance, in 1990 visitors generated
29,000 tonnes of solid waste in Pattaya (Thailand) within a short
season. The scenic Anhui Province of Mount Huangshan in China, a
location that is visited by more than 10 000 visitors a day during
peak periods, accumulates more than 10 000 tonnes of refuse and
3 000 tonnes of excrement; all of which is difficult to dispose
in a short time (Genot, 1997).
On average, per capita waste generation in India is 0.5 kg a day.
Chennai, one of the metropolitan cities of India, with 0.675 kg
of waste generated per capita per day was the highest for any city
in India. Chennai is followed by Kanpur (0.640), Lucknow (0.623)
and Surat (0.600; Anonymous, 1997a). Nagpur- also a metro- showed
a generation of 0.273 kg/capita/day (Anonymous, 1997a). The waste
generation in and around the Valley of Flowers, in Uttaranchal hill
state was noted to be 0.253 kg/capita/day (Kuniyal et al., 1997;
Kuniyal et al., 1998; Kuniyal and Jain, 1999; Kuniyal et al., 1999).
In the Himalayan valleys the wastes are mostly dumped into the rivers
for convenience. This pollutes drinking water and affects the health
of hosts as well as guests.
Water is life. But it is ironical that about 1.2 billion people
in the world lack access to clean drinking water, 2.2 billion lack
adequate sanitation and 4 billion do not have sewerage service (Abu-Zeid,
1998, p. 11). Without a supply of good quality water, tourists cannot
fully enjoy the places that are scenically beautiful and attractive.
Shiaris (1985) commented that no part of the globe is free from
pollution. Nitrogen-polluted surface and groundwater have affected
the north west, south and central parts of Europe. Around 60% of
European countries are overexploiting groundwater. In USA, water
extraction is expected to increase by 15% per annum (DTE, 2000b,
p.23). We are able to use less than 0.08% of the total water volume
on the planet (Serageldin, 1998, p.123), so it is precious indeed.
Some 4-10 million deaths annually are attributed to water borne
diseases (Abu-Zeid, 1998, p. 11; Cosgrove and Rijsberman, 1998,
p. 116).
In tourist areas, neither tourists nor hosts can be happy and healthy
unless clean and adequate and uncontaminated water is made available
to them. Therefore, water quality may have the same value in attracting
tourists as the scenic forests, good hotels, quality air and general
cleanliness of the tourist spots. Eighty per cent of the country's
drinking water needs is met from ground water. In 1994, the CPCB,
Delhi identified 22 places in 16 states of India as critical sites
of ground water pollution (DTE, 1999f, p. 31). Studies in the states
of Haryana, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh showed the presence of traces
of heavy metals like iron and zinc in all the samples, cadmium in
five samples and lead in three samples. But all the samples had
one striking similarity: the level of mercury was dangerously high
(DTE, 1999f, p. 31). Depleting ground water sources have compelled
the farmers, in 24 villages in the Vadodara and Bharuch districts
of Gujarat, to use industrial effluents, that have heavy doses of-
not nutrients but heavy metals, for irrigation. It was estimated
that not a single drop of the industrial effluent reached the Gulf
of Cambay because it had been used by farmers to irrigate their
land (DTE, 1999g, p. 14). About 12 villages around the Unnao district
of Uttar Pradesh have been seriously affected by fluoride contamination
in the water giving rise to bone deformities among villagers (DTE,
1999h, p. 19). The cases of fluorosis among the residents of Delhi
are also increasing (DTE, 2000c, p. 12).
In the Himalaya the main sources of drinking water are streams,
springs and rivers. In the valleys, some areas also have hand pumps
for drinking water. Amongst these sources, rivers and streams seem
to be most affected by human interferences. As the springs are drying
up, the pressure is high on the rivers that are difficult to harness
due to its high economic costs and pollution.
Research
Methods
Over construction
In order to determine the rate of hotel construction in the valley
a random sample of the hotels at Kullu and Manali in 1993-94 and
in 2000-01 were surveyed. In Kullu-Manali town where the growth
has been most dramatic, the survey was repeated in June-July 2000
to derive recent changes over the last decade. The information was
obtained directly from hotel owners/contractors through interviews
and questionnaires regarding expansion or new constructions of hotels.
Primary information was tabulated on the basis of the year of construction
and the acquired figures were arranged in such a way as to know
a decennial change in hotel construction over the decades (before
1980, 1980-90 and above 1990 and onwards).
Deforestation
The direct impact of hotel construction on the surrounding forests
for timber and fuel wood is high. Deforestation, due to tourism-related
construction is a serious issue in the Himalaya. Interviews of 63
hoteliers and 163 tourists in Kullu and Manali were undertaken through
questionnaires. These were conducted to assess their responses to
the extent of forest degradation in the area; all emphasised the
urgent need of afforestation. Primary data collection to assess
the quantity of woods being used in the hotel industry from surrounding
forest trees was conducted from 40 hotels at Kullu from 11th November
to 11th December 2000, and from 84 hotels at Manali from 6th January
2000 to 15th July 2000 to assess loss of forest along with growth
of tourism in the valley.
Air Quality Monitoring Analysis
Air pollution is another negative impact of tourism activities.
The rise in the number of vehicles, mismanaged traffic and deforestation
has all contributed to the poor air quality in sensitive tourist
areas such as Kullu-Manali. The ambient air quality of the region
was monitored for four years (1996 to 1999). The spots chosen were
all at a distance of between 5 and 10 km from the centres of the
town. The prime pollutants, viz., SPM, SO2 and NO2 were monitored
on fortnightly and/or monthly basis using Envirotech High Volume
Sampler (model APM-415). For monitoring SPM the duration was 8 hours,
and for SO2 and NO2 it was 4 hours. On the occasion of Dussehra
festival, SPM was monitored for four days continuously from 23 to
26 October, 1999. This festival is celebrated every year in Kullu,
and is the most important cultural event for the host communities
from the point of view of tourism and commerce.
Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW) Characterisation
Solid waste management is another major problem in hill resorts.
MSW here is a mixed waste coming from various sources, such as,
hotels, business establishments, homes, offices and other institutional
establishments. To know the extent of MSW problem, particularly
due to tourism activities, the waste from point (collection points)
and non-point (disposal sites) sources was segregated to determine
its physical compositions and chemical properties. Collection points
are the different designated places for the dustbins or the open
dumping of waste within the 19 wards (12 in Kullu and 7 in Manali)
of the Municipal Council or Naggar Panchayat. The disposal sites
are the places where the local bodies (municipality and/or Naggar
Panchayat) dump the total collected wastes gathered from different
collection points in the towns. At present, these sites are Pirdi
at Kullu and Rangari in Manali. Both the dumping sites, however,
are located outside the limits of municipal towns.
During 1996-1997, sixty-two samples of waste from Kullu and 115
from Manali were segregated manually to obtain its composition and
the seasonal pattern of its generation (Table 1). 1 foot3 (1 foot³
=0.028 m³ or 1 m³=35.315 foot³) tin and/or wooden
box was used to obtain each sample. The total waste collected for
both of the locations-Kullu and Manali were about 380 kg and 1,050
kg respectively (Table 2). Keeping the seasonal traffic of the tourists
and corresponding enhancement or reduction in solid waste generation
in view, the survey was conducted during the 3 main seasons. For
Manali in 1996 the periods chosen were: 8-12 and 22-24 June to represent
summer; 1-4 September for monsoon; and 9-11 and 19-20 December for
winter. Similarly, the sampling dates for waste segregation at Kullu
in 1997 were: 18-21 June, 17-19 September and 20-23 December. A
secondary level sample with 200 to 300 gm of the segregated wastes
was taken up to analyse the moisture content and chemical properties
so as to study the possibilities of energy generation from wastes.
Moisture content was obtained after drying the secondary samples
continuously for 24 to 72 hours in an oven at 40° C till the
weight becomes constant. The difference between initial fresh weight
and final dried weight thus represented the moisture percentage.
Moreover, the dried wastes were ground to particle size to dissolve
it in solvents for testing chemical properties, mainly heat producing
capacity (HPC), pH, NPK, carbon/nitrogen ratio, etc.
| Sources of MSW samples |
Kullu |
Manali |
| |
Number of waste samples |
| |
Summer a |
Monsoon b |
Winter c |
Total |
Summer d |
Monsoon e |
Winter f |
Total |
| Collection points |
18 |
19 |
15 |
52 |
19 |
25 |
20 |
64 |
| Disposal sites |
2 |
4 |
4 |
10 |
35 |
6 |
10 |
51 |
| Total samples analysed g |
20 |
23 |
19 |
62 |
54 |
31 |
30 |
115 |
|
a 18-21 June 1997
b 17-19 September 1997
c 20-23 December 1997
d 8-12 June and 22-24 June 1996
|
e 1-4 September 1996
f 9-11 December and 19-20 December 1996
g One sample represents 1 foot³ wastes |
Table 1: Solid waste characterisation sampling
details
| Wastes |
Kullu (1997) |
Manali (1996) |
| |
Summer |
Monsoon |
Winter |
Ave-rage |
Summer |
Monsoon |
Winter |
Ave-rage |
| Sampled Wastes (kg) |
124.6 |
155.3 |
100.5 |
380.4a |
556.7 |
266.3 |
227.4 |
1050.4a |
| Bulk density /foot³ |
6.2 |
6.8 |
5.3 |
6.1 |
10.3 |
8.6 |
7.6 |
9.1 |
a Data showing total sampled and segregated wastes rather than
average
Table 2: Bulk density measurement of solid
wastes in Kullu-Manali complex
Water Quality Analysis
Some of the important water quality parameters, at primary level,
were jointly determined with Toshniwal Process Instruments Private
Limited (TPIPL)-Ajmer (Rajasthan state). Parameters such as dissolved
oxygen (DO), and pH at existing water temperature for river Beas
were measured at two sites in Bhuntar; one at the point where
river Beas joins Parbati, second at a point where an effluent
coming from mid-part of Bhuntar town mixes with river Beas. The
equipments for measuring these parameters were OX1-191 and pH-323
respectively. After analysing these limited samples, data from
similar studies by Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Regional
Research Station, Bajaura-Kullu were taken into consideration.
Results
and Discussion
The current form of tourism in the valley has overwhelming negative
impacts when compared to positive ones (Table 3). The most visible
forms of degradation due to tourism currently are: over constructions
of hotels, which in combination with other interrelated impacts
cause land degradation, deforestation, air pollution, solid waste
problem and water pollution.
| Forms of Activity |
Pressures on |
Adverse impacts |
| Over construction |
Land |
Increase in disasters (deforestation,
floods, cloud bursts and landslides, etc.) |
Increase in roads Fuelwood
Timber extraction
Forest fires |
Forests |
Soil erosion, landslides, floods
Air pollution and shrinkage in forests
Air pollution and loss of forests cover
Drying up of springs |
Trekking,
Hunting & poaching |
Fauna |
Disturb wildlife habitat
Reduction in wildlife |
| Increase in road traffic |
Air |
Increase in air and/or noise
pollution and respiratory problems begin |
Waste dumping
Sewage disposal |
Water |
Water borne disease/ contamination
of water sources, fading scenic beauty |
Table 3: Adverse impacts on natural environment
due to unplanned
tourism in the Himalaya (after Kuniyal et al., 1999)
Over construction of Hotels and Land degradation
Taking pre-1980 as a base year, hotel constructions in Kullu
and Manali within a decade increased by 171.4% during 1990 at
the rate of 17.1% per annum (Table 4). After 1990, the increase
in construction slowed down to 38.1% in 1993-94 and 63.9% in 2000-2001.
On average, it is now clear that the 1990s have experienced speedy
and increased hotel construction in Kullu-Manali. One of the main
reasons for this upshot in construction is thought to be the rise
of militancy and insurgency in the neighbouring state of Jammu
and Kashmir. Tourist activities started to dwindle there while
in Kullu-Manali there was an increase because of diversion of
domestic as well as foreign tourists from the disturbed state.
This period of tourist growth proved economically beneficial but
environmentally it has been disastrous for Kullu-Manali.
| Year of construction |
Kullu
Nb =33 |
Manali
n=38 |
Kullu-Manali
n=71 |
% change |
Kullu
n=40 |
Manali
n=84 |
Kullu-
Manali
n=124 |
% change |
| |
Number of establishments:
1993-94 |
Number of establishments:
2000-01 |
| Pre 1980 |
6 |
2 |
8 |
- |
4 |
9 |
13 |
- |
| 1980-85 |
3 |
10 |
13 |
+62.5 |
3 |
13 |
16 |
+23.1 |
| 1985-90 |
6 |
15 |
21 |
+61.5 |
6 |
30 |
36 |
+125.0 |
| 1990 + |
18 |
11 |
29 |
+38.1 |
27 |
32 |
59 |
+63.9 |
a Based on hoteliers' interview regarding year of construction of
their hotels.
b Number of establishments.
Table 4: Changes in construction level a (%
of the total number
of hotels constructed in a period of time), 1993-94 and 2000-01
(after Kuniyal et al., 1999)
Tourism growth has provided different types of job such as hotel
employees, travel agents, tourist guides, transport operators
and as mediators between guests and hosts in giving an idea of
availability and suitability for accommodation and transport in
a tourist spot where normally the tourists remain strangers. A
tourist spot develops through the creation of infrastructure such
as accommodation and roads. Local products become available due
to the entrepreneurial activities of local people. These related
activities provide a boost to the income of local communities
and encourage further developments.
Tourist growth continues in an unregulated and uncontrolled form.
Developments and activities are continuously needed to meet the
demands of the increasing number of tourists. Key sites such as
the Rohtang Pass attract large number of visitors with respect
to the recreational resource capacity and available road facilities
there. The high seasonal inflow in surrounding picnic spots of
the major tourist towns like Manali ultimately gives impetus to
more hotel construction leading to adverse over-construction,
deforestation for hotel timbers, furniture, fuel and other uses.
The unregulated inflow of tourists brings a higher number of vehicles,
it creates traffic congestion that causes ambient air pollution
by way of high vehicular emissions up to the sub-alpine or alpine
picnic tops. The study showed that of 750 vehicles per day on
Rohtang top ply in summer, over 87% belonged to tourists. Thus,
as a combined effect of biomass burning in winter in the hotels
as well as villages and the high number of plying vehicles in
summer, ambient air pollution in the form of SPM increases sometimes
more than its permissible level for these sensitive areas.
Another environmental issue that arises is the management of
solid waste. For example, the daily visitors at Rohtang Pass generate
1,335 kg per day solid waste. This results in an accumulation
of 122 tonnes in the three months from April to June. The waste
disposal problem is greatest in the outskirts of major tourist
spots, where there are no formal disposal schemes or financial
support to manage the waste.
Deforestation
Of the total land cover in Himachal state, 59% of the area is
devoted to forest. 10% of this has a crown density >40% and
3% has crown density <40%. The remaining 46% comprises high
and medium alpine pastures, grazing lands and blank surfaces (Anonymous,
1993). Kullu district, covered in the present study has only 16.5%
forest area of Himachal (Anonymous, 1994b). The major species
of trees that have been exploited indiscriminately for timber
in building of houses and hotels over the years are Deodar and
Kail.
To gauge the existing status of forests in the eyes of the public,
a perception study among hoteliers and tourists was done. 30.2%
hoteliers and 22.7% tourists strongly felt that the forests had
degraded. Most of the respondents ranked deforestation as the
most significant environmental component adversely affected by
tourism (Table 5). So deforestation is thought to be a matter
of deep concern in the ecologically sensitive areas of Kullu and
Manali, this aspect requires immediate attention.
| Forms of degradation |
Kullu
(a) |
Manali
(b) |
Mean values
(a & b) |
| |
Hoteliers n=29 |
Tourists
n=55 |
Hoteliers
n=128 |
Tourists
n=108 |
Hoteliers
n=157 |
Tourists
n=163 |
| Deforestation |
30.8 |
25.5 |
30.0 |
21.3 |
30.4 |
23.4 |
| Flood/landslide |
33.3 |
32.7 |
19.2 |
32.4 |
26.3 |
32.6 |
| Garbage |
42.9 |
18.2 |
22.4 |
24.1 |
32.7 |
21.2 |
| Water pollution |
30.0 |
10.9 |
11.3 |
3.7 |
20.7 |
7.3 |
| Over-construction |
28.6 |
7.3 |
52.3 |
11.1 |
40.5 |
9.2 |
| Sewerage problem |
18.2 |
1.8 |
30.4 |
14.8 |
24.3 |
8.3 |
a Results are on first ranking basis
Table 5: Environmental degradations due to
tourism (% of the total interviewees) as perceived by the hoteliers
and tourists in 1997-98
in Kullu-Manali complex a
According to existing laws in Himachal, every household
is entitled to standing trees for the purpose of timber at nominal
rates under timber distribution (TD) rights. TD holders have to
pay less than the market rate of the same wood. Under these TD
rights, as they are called, right holders get a deodar tree for
rupees (Rs) 1 to 7 only (currently about Rs 48=1 $US), the market
rate of which today is somewhere between Rs 60,000 to Rs 195,000
(or $US 1,250 to 4,063 at current price). The massive difference
in the price of timber is largely responsible for its diversion
for the purpose of hotel construction and resulting deforestation.
According to the data collected, 543 m³ of wood was used
during construction of 40 hotels at Kullu and 3,855 m³ woods
in 84 hotels at Manali, an average of 13.6 m³ hotel-1 at
Kullu and 45.9 m³ hotel-1 at Manali. Of the total wood used
by volume in hotel industry, the larger and higher categories
of hotels use more wood and cause relatively higher pressure on
the available forest resources.
The perception study of contractors or hotel builders showed
that Deodar trees are the most commonly used timber (64.3% and
87.6% at Kullu and Manali respectively). Therefore, it can be
concluded that Deodar is a highly threatened species. Such practices
indicate an alarming signal to conserve these highly important
tree species aesthetically helpful in attracting tourists and
ecologically conserving surrounding environment.
Air Pollution
Air pollution in both of the tourist spots seems to be increasing.
SPM in the peak summer season was beyond permissible level (100
µg/m³) in Kullu-Manali. SPM data for four years ranged
from 101.9 µg/m³ in 1997 to 118.8 µg/m³
in 1999 at Mohal and from 101.3 µg/m³ in 1996 to 142.6
µg/m³ in 1998 at Manali. SPM values for summer season
between 1996 to 1999 have shown increase at both of the monitoring
stations with the year 1999 at Manali being an exception when
this value was measured at 89.6 µg/m³. The highest
ever values for this period was measured at Mohal in May 1998
when it was 171.8 µg/m³. The values at Manali were
as low as 114.4 µg/m³ in June 1997 and as high as 150.1
µg/m³ in May 1998 (Anonymous, 1996; Anonymous, 1997b;
Table 6).
| Seasons |
Mohal (Kullu) |
Manali |
| |
1996 |
1997 |
1998 |
1999 |
Mean |
1996 |
1997 |
1998 |
1999 |
Mean |
| Summer a |
73.8 |
101.9 |
108.7 |
118.8 |
100.8 |
101.3 |
114.4 |
142.6 |
89.6 |
112.0 |
| Monsoon b |
48.5 |
79.3 |
66.1 |
104.5 |
74.6 |
52.5 |
67.4 |
91.1 |
57.7 |
67.2 |
| Winter c |
79.8 |
65.6 |
105.6 |
103.9 |
88.7 |
75.0 |
104.7 |
124.6 |
50.4 |
88.7 |
a March to June
b July to October
c November to February
Table 6: SPM (µg/m³) in ambient
air in Kullu and Manali spots (Anonymous,
1996; Anonymous, 1998; Kuniyal et al., 1999; Momin et al., 2000)
The most striking values of SPM were derived during
the Dussehra festival that is celebrated every year in Dhalpur
ground, Kullu. The average SPM figure for four days was found
to be 358.6 µg/m³ and ranged from 262.8 µg/m³
(23 October 1999) to 411.2 µg/m³ (26 October 1999)
during four sampling days. In this festival that continues for
seven days, around 200,000 pilgrims, villagers and tourists participate.
The dust is the major source of SPM during this festival as the
festival ground is almost bare. It is quite clear that SPM mean
values cross the permissible level at both the spots; as the number
of tourists increase, the SPM values also increase proportionally.
The level of air pollution in the winter season is also quite
high. This is mainly due to burning of fossil fuel, in large quantities,
by native inhabitants and sometimes by hoteliers during electricity
failure in winter. Monsoon season has the lowest SPM values due
to washout effects of rains and very few numbers of tourists during
this period.
Trace gas concentrations, such as SO2 and NO2 during 1996-97
were between 12-29 µg/m³ and 16-28 µg/m³
at Mohal (Kullu), and 12-40 µg/m³ and 12-34 µg/m³
at Manali respectively. SO2 and NO2 concentrations were in excess
under specified 24-hour standard duration for sensitive areas
(15-30 µg/m³) during summer season in Manali. As far
as ammonia (NH3) concentration is concerned, it was between 7-10
µg/m³ at Mohal and 24 µg/m³ at Manali. During
1997-98, trace gas concentrations of SO2 and NO2 was within detection
limits. SO2 was 6 to 9 µg/m³ at Mohal and 6 to 7 µg/m³
at Manali. NO2 was measured between 3 to 15 µg/m³ at
Mohal and 4 to 14 µg/m³ at Manali. June and October
were the important months when tourists and Dussehra enthusiasts
visited Kullu-Manali complex in large numbers causing atmospheric
pollution from their vehicles.
Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW)
The main sources of solid waste are hotels, residential colonies,
hospitals and other business and office establishments. The total
waste generated from all these sources during the peak tourist
season was estimated around 56 tonnes and 30 tonnes/day at Kullu
and Manali respectively. Of the total waste generation, hotels
were responsible for 12 tonnes and ~20 tonnes of waste at Kullu
and Manali respectively. Residential colonies contribute ~44 tonnes
at Kullu and 8 tonnes at Manali. Hospital waste is below 0.11
tonnes for both the locations, it is unfortunately also treated
as a MSW and dumped at the bank of river Beas mixed with other
MSW. At Kullu, more solid waste is generated throughout the year
as the local population is much higher than that of Manali.
The authorities managing solid wastes (Municipality and Naggar
Panchayat) are capable of lifting about 20% of the wastes at Kullu
and 27% at Manali, mainly from those collection points that have
good link roads. Waste collection points in areas devoid of any
access to trucks and tractors remain uncleared. Municipal authorities
sometimes dispose of collected wastes by land filling after digging
large pits. But these practices are not sustainable because there
is scarcity of suitable land spaces in such hilly terrain. Therefore,
dumping of wastes in the rivers is the most common way of disposing
MSW.
The main constituent of solid wastes is the readily biodegradable
waste (RBW) that comprises mainly rotten vegetables, fruits, waste
foods, leaves and organic matters. Seasonal segregation from point
sources (municipal collection points) on average depicted RBW
to be ~44% for Kullu and ~59% for Manali towns (Table 7). On the
other hand, the share of RBW from non-point sources (disposal
sites) was about 48% at Kullu and 51% at Manali.
The next category of waste was biodegradable waste (BW), this
consisted mainly of paper, rag/cloth, wood, hay and straw and
coconut peels. The average value of BW for three seasons was 18.5%.
However, these values remained 16.0% for Manali. For non-point
sources BW at Kullu was 16.3% and at Manali it was 18.5%.
| Waste categories |
Kullu(1997) |
Manali(1996) |
| |
Summer |
Monsoon |
Winter |
Ave-rage |
Summer |
Monsoon |
Winter |
Ave-rage |
| RBW |
44.7 |
47.0 |
42.1 |
45.0 |
54.5 |
59.9 |
48.8 |
54.6 |
| BW |
19.4 |
15.5 |
18.8 |
17.7 |
16.3 |
19.5 |
16.9 |
17.3 |
| NBW |
35.9 |
37.5 |
39.1 |
37.4 |
29.1 |
20.7 |
34.3 |
28.1 |
| Total |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
Table 7: Average MSW characterisation results
(%) from point and non-point sources
The recyclable but non-decomposing waste category
is classified as non-biodegradable waste (NBW). The NBW group
consisted primarily of plastic, glasses and metal. NBW from
point sources in all three seasons at Kullu and Manali was around
37% and 26% respectively. Similarly from non-point sources,
NBW at Kullu was found to be the lowest, 23% during summer and
the highest 44% in winter. Reasonably similar pattern was also
observed at Manali showing the low share during summer and monsoon
(30% and 24% respectively) and high share (~36%) during winter.
The share remained low in summer because some Rag pickers and
Kabariwalas (or recycling party) lifted the discarded recyclable
waste from NBW. Climate being very cold during winters most
of the Rag pickers migrate to the plains. Therefore, the NBW
such as plastic, glass, metal, rubber/leather were high during
winters.
Water Pollution
A survey of water in 1994 at the selected site
of river Beas showed dissolved oxygen (DO) as 12.0 milligram
per litre (mgl-1) and pH-8.3 at 11.4°C temperature. Another
study in 1999 showed DO varying from 7.2 to 9.5 mgl-1 whereas
it was reported to be 12.8 mgl-1 in 1984 (Sehgal, 1984; Chauhan,
2000; Table 8). At another site, near where a sewage effluent
outlet from Bhuntar (8 km from Kullu) enters the river, DO was
only 3.5 mgl-1 and pH 6.6 with water temperature at 18°C.
This considerable decrease in DO signals the deteriorating water
conditions in river Beas. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) also
has higher values (2.2 to 18.0 mgl-1) it further indicates that
river water is getting more and more polluted.
Other physiochemical parameters of the river Beas
were surveyed from Manali to Aut, representing the whole of
Kullu valley. The water temperature ranged from 3.5 to 18.5°
C compared to an air temperature of 4 to 26° C. The pH was
high in winters compared to rainy seasons. Conductivity showed
an increase from Manali (2050 m) downstream to Aut (910 m).
Large waste inflows into this river from low-lying parts of
the town from the waste dumping could be attributed to more
conductivity during September. A chloride content of between
18 mgl-1 to 28 mgl-1 is considered to be an integral part of
eutrophication (Rao, 1971; Zafar, 1966). Between 1966 to 1999
the chloride concentrations in the river water has increased
alarmingly from 4.0-7.1 mgl-1 (Sehgal, 1984) to 15-32.2 mgl-1
(Chauhan, 2000). This increase in chloride concentrations in
river water is a serious threat to fish culture in the Kullu
valley. Sulphate was noted between 3.0 to 60.0 mgl-1. Nitrite
and nitrate were earlier reported only in traces but recent
study showed concentrations from 0.001 to 0.32 mgl-1; this can
be ascribed to excessive use of chemical fertilisers by orchardists
and farmers.
| Parameters |
Winter a
n=5 |
Summer b
n=5 |
Monsoon c
n=5 |
| Physical parameters |
|
|
|
Air temperature
(° C) |
4.0-14.0 |
12.0-26.0 |
14.0-25.0 |
Water temperature
(° C) |
3.5-13.0 |
6.5-17.8 |
7.0-18.0 |
| pH |
7.5-8.6 |
7.4-8.2 |
7.3-8.0 |
| Chemical Parameters |
|
|
|
| Conductivity (mohms) |
22.0-190.0 |
23.0-200.0 |
25.0-215.0 |
| Chloride (mg l-1) |
19.2-32.2 |
18.4-32.6 |
15.0-29.0 |
| Dissolved oxygen (mg l-1) |
7.6-9.5 |
7.2-9.0 |
7.0-8.4 |
| Chemical oxygen (mg l-1) |
2.2-9.4 |
5.0-18.0 |
4.0-17.3 |
| Sulphate (mg l-1) |
3.0-40.5 |
5.0-48.3 |
6.0-60.5 |
| Nitrite cum Nitrates (mg l-1) |
0.001-0.24 |
0.001-0.29 |
0.001-0.32 |
| Total dissolved solids (mg l-1) |
20.0-140.0 |
25.0-150.0 |
45.0-250.0 |
| Total suspended solids (mg l-1) |
17.0-70.0 |
20.0-80.0 |
35.0-135.0 |
a January 1999
b February 1999
c March 1999
Table 8. Water quality status in River
Beas from Manali to
Aut in Kullu valley (after Chauhan, 2000)
As water is a primary need of humankind, a serious
decline in water quality and quantity as demonstrated by the
results of these surveys indicate that a critical environmental
health risk has begun to emerge in these mountain regions. In
the absence of any treatment system, sewerage discharge from
these and other similar areas ultimately flows to heavily populated
areas. Untreated raw sewage, and septic tanks, wherever they
exist, contaminates river water. Current conditions have mounted
the incidence of water borne diseases including cholera, dysentery,
hepatitis, etc.
Therefore the two most important concerns in the
Himalaya that require immediate attention are:
· drinkable water is found in limited quantities from
the prevalent sources such as springs, lakes, hand pumps, streams
or rivers is becoming scarce as the traditional sources of water
are drying up continuously.
· whatever water is available is polluted by the prevalent
practices of garbage dumping and direct effluents discharge
into rivers.
Mitigating
Measures
The relationship between the inflow of tourists
and hotel construction during five years (1993-94 to 1997-98)
is quite paradoxical. For all types of accommodation there has
been about a 13% decline in average occupancy, but the construction
of hotels has more than doubled (~28%). Only regulated tourism
and a complete ban on multi-storied hotel structures can establish
and maintain a balance between the available hotel accommodation
and overall inflow of tourists. The number of tourists that
are allowed to enter a particular spot during a particular time
should be determined keeping in mind available accommodation
and civil infrastructure.
The smaller the size of accommodation structure,
the more likely it is that environmental constituents will be
conserved. Ecofriendly constructions and regulated tourist traffic
could ultimately minimise deforestation. An ecofriendly tourist
spot might have a green-belt cover of two-third of its total
geographical area. Degraded slopes, prone to landslides could
be brought under schemes for the plantation of shrubs, plants
being used both as measure of conservation and as additional
attraction for tourists.
CPCB (1994) suggest that regular/continuous monitoring
and further investigation should be instigated where air pollution
limits are exceeded on two consecutive occasions. There is considerable
scope for enforcing, improving and replacing of existing laws
pertaining to motor vehicles to curb air pollution. For example,
all old buses could be converted to compressed natural gas (CNG).
Cars and taxis could be converted to clean fuel. All vehicles
irrespective to their size and capacity ought to be required
to meet emission standards. The standards, fixed by the Supreme
Court of India for the National Capital Region since 30 June
2001, should be extended to the whole nation and especially
to fragile locations. The use of improved quality petrol with
0.05% sulphur, 1% benzene could be considered with a provision
for the reduction of tax on the import of battery driven microbuses.
In the hills, air pollution is compounded by poor road conditions
whereby dust gets added to the vehicular emissions. So an emphasis
on metalled roads along with better traffic management would
be a suitable approach to adopt.
Waste Management is a critical aspect of tourism
management studies in mountain environments. Unless suitable
technologies and management strategies for solid waste collection,
transportation and disposal are evolved, the scenic and pristine
beauty of tourist places in the hills will continue to degrade.
There is no single solid waste management solution for all three
broad categories of waste, so a separate solid waste management
option suited to each category of waste needs to be adopted.
The study of segregated waste and its compositions strongly
suggest that the waste can be tackled through biocomposting
(readily biodegradable and biodegradable waste) and reuse and
recycling (non-biodegradable waste) measures. The readily biodegradable
and biodegradable waste that form a lion's share (62.7% at Kullu
and 71.9% at Manali) of the waste compared to non-biodegradable,
have adequate potential for biocomposting. For non-biodegradable
waste reuse and recycling are the only options. Many items that
have the potential for reuse are simply waste due to negligence
of visitors. Non-biodegradables that remain unattended are the
worst enemies of nature yet these could be recycled providing
economic benefits. With the active participation and co-operation
of hoteliers, tourists, non-governmental organisations, municipalities,
research institutions and local government the problem of solid
wastes from the region could be eliminated through the practice
of biocomposting, reuse, and recycling (Kuniyal et al., 1995;
Kuniyal et al., 1997; Kuniyal and Jain, 1999; Kuniyal, 2002).
Water quality problems are closely connected to
waste disposal. At present, much water pollution is mainly due
to the direct and indiscriminate throwing of waste into the
rivers and draining of town effluents, pesticides and insecticide
residues into the rivers during rains. The practice of dumping
municipal wastes directly into rivers needs to be controlled.
Some essential preventive measures at hotel level also need
to be followed. The direct discharge of effluents into rivers
ought to be banned and violation, if any, should be penalised
by regulatory bodies such as Himachal Pradesh State Pollution
Control Board. Besides, Department of Tourism, Government of
India, should formulate strict environmental protection norms
to be followed by hoteliers in all the highly sensitive areas.
Existing norms for environmental conservation
and legislation governing all forms of development need to be
clearly stated and strictly enforced. Most of this is considered
by the general public not to be specifically targeted, meant
and followed when considering the tourist and hotel industry.
Yet the National Action Plan for Tourism of May 1992, clearly
mentions preserving national heritage and environment (EQUATIONS,
2003, p. 4). But success of legislation will only be effective
if the local communities and external associations implement
them in a participatory manner.
Conclusion
The Himalaya is a highly eco-sensitive location
and environmental factors have to be taken into special account
to avoid doing permanent or long-lasting damage to the very
elements that bring tourists to the region. Capacity building
in this regard has much to do with developing tourism viably
at different organisational levels. A wide array of actions
such as organisational reforms, institutional strengthening
and networking among these is essential. Imparting training
and education, from the worker at the bottom level to the managers
at the top of different organisations, can be a major progressive
step in increasing capacity building of tourism sector. Trained
and educated manpower is a valuable tool for utilising the research
finding and designing programmes in accordance with the ground
realities so that all the types of environmental problems discussed
could be resolved satisfactorily. Tourism then would become
sustainable but also ecologically viable, economically beneficial,
socially acceptable and aesthetically appealing.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Director, G.B.
Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development (GBPIHED),
Kosi-Katarmal, Almora (Uttaranchal) for providing necessary
facilities in completing this work. Thanks are also due to Dr.
P.P. Kaistha, Government P.G. College, Kullu (H.P.) for going
through the manuscript willingly and making relevant suggestions
for the cause of sustainable tourism and betterment of the host
communities. The authors are heartily thankful and grateful
to the Editor of the Journal as well as anonymous reviewers
for their invaluable comments and suggestions to improve the
quality of the article further.
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Please cite this paper
as:
Kuniyal, J.C., Jain, A.P. and Shannigrahi, A.S. (2003) Environmental
Impacts of Tourism in Kullu-Manali complex in North Western
Himalaya, India. Part 1: The Adverse Impacts, International
Journal of Fieldwork Studies, 1 (1), http://www.virtualmontana.org/ejournal/vol1(1)/tourism.htm
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